Advanced applications

Where the literature has put ultrafine bubbles into a process line.

Concrete, dairy concentrate, wafer cleaning, biodiesel, cooling towers. What published work reports, what mechanism is doing it, and where our hardware would sit. None of it is our own measurement, and we say so on every figure.

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+6–13%
Concrete strength
(no added admixture · published research)
65–80%
Milk viscosity cut
(protein concentrate · published research)
~+16%
Combustion efficiency
(H₂ bubbles in diesel · published research)
Cross-sector applications

Where it works

Published research has put ultrafine bubbles into each of these processes. Here is what it reports, and where the hardware would sit.

Food & beverage

In published work, CO₂ ultrafine bubbles raised ice-cream overrun and cut milk-concentrate viscosity 65–80%.

Construction

Higher compressive strength (+6–13% in published work) and CO₂ bound in the matrix during curing.

Precision cleaning

Remove nanoscale particles from silicon wafers with far less cleaning chemistry, in published work.

Biofuels & energy

Cavitation accelerates transesterification for biodiesel production, in published work.

Thermal management

Slow scale formation in cooling towers and thin thermal boundary layers, in published work.

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Have a process line where this could apply?

Tell us what the line does and what it costs to run. We will map the published work onto it and say plainly where our hardware would sit — and where it would not.

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Buyer questions

What process engineers ask before a worked analysis

Which processes does this apply to?

The ones published research has put ultrafine bubbles into: dairy concentrate and ice cream, concrete batching and curing, precision cleaning of wafers and membranes, biodiesel transesterification, and cooling-tower scale control. If your line isn't on that list, tell us what it does and we will say whether the published work reaches it.

Are any of these figures yours?

No. Every figure on this page is published research — concrete strength +6–13% and milk-concentrate viscosity down 65–80%, for example, were measured on other people's mixes and concentrates. None of it is our own measurement, and we say so on every figure.

How is a project scoped?

Case by case, with a worked analysis rather than a calculator. Tell us what the line does and what it costs to run; we map the published work onto it and say plainly where our hardware would sit — the batch water feed, the concentrate line ahead of the dryer, a make-up or recirculation line — and where it would not.

What would a trial on our line look like?

Treated against untreated on the same line, with a baseline captured first and the success criteria agreed in writing before anything ships. The measurement is the property the published work reports — compressive strength, viscosity, scale formation — taken on your material rather than ours. You get a written results report, baseline against treated, and you decide whether to scale.

What does the site need to provide?

A dedicated GFCI-protected circuit, with the exact voltage and amperage specified in your proposal, access to the water line at the injection point, and a mounting area for the skid. The equipment mounts inline on existing piping, so installation usually takes one to three days.

Research & hardware

What the research says, and what we build

Each problem below is paired with the published work on it and with the hardware that puts the mechanism in your line. Figures are other people's trials unless marked KST field data.

Figures below are from independent, peer-reviewed studies unless marked KST field data.

Problem: dairy processing is too slow and inconsistent
The problem: High viscosity in milk concentrates slows spray drying. Ice cream texture depends on slow, energy-intensive freezing processes.
What the research reports: In published trials, CO₂ ultrafine bubbles increased ice-cream overrun and shortened crystal nucleation time. In milk protein concentrates, ultrafine bubbles reduced viscosity by 65–80%, improving powder rehydration. Our hardware would sit on the concentrate line ahead of the dryer.
Adhikari et al., 2019 Amamcharla et al., 2020
Problem: concrete is porous and slow to cure
The problem: Concrete porosity allows chloride ingress, causing corrosion and reducing lifespan. Standard curing takes 28 days to reach target strength.
What the research reports: In published work, ultrafine bubble water provides nucleation sites for faster hydration, increasing compressive strength by 6–13%. It also reduces chloride permeability, improving freeze-thaw resistance. Our hardware would sit on the batch water feed.
Mohseni et al., 2019 Hanoon et al., 2021
Problem: precision surfaces need cleaning with less chemistry
The problem: Semiconductor wafers and RO membranes require ultra-clean surfaces, but conventional cleaning relies on harsh chemicals that damage sensitive substrates.
What the research reports: Collapsing ultrafine bubbles generate high-speed microjets that detach nanoscale particles from silicon wafers with far less cleaning chemistry. In RO systems, they restore permeate flux by detaching fouling layers. Our hardware would sit on the rinse or feed water supply.
Zhu et al., 2016 Agarwal et al., 2021
Problem: biofuel production is too slow
The problem: Biodiesel transesterification is slow and energy-intensive. Fuel viscosity limits atomization efficiency in engines, reducing combustion performance.
What the research reports: Hydrodynamic cavitation intensifies transesterification and shortens processing time. Hydrogen ultrafine bubbles added to diesel improve atomization, increasing combustion efficiency by ~16% in published work. A cavitator would sit on the reactor recirculation loop.
Gogate et al., 2019 Oh et al., 2020
Problem: scale build-up is cutting your cooling efficiency
The problem: Mineral scale buildup in cooling towers and pipes insulates heat exchangers, reducing thermal efficiency and increasing energy consumption.
What the research reports: In published work, ultrafine bubbles inhibit calcite and silica scaling by attracting mineral ions and interrupting crystal growth. They also improve heat transfer by thinning thermal boundary layers. Our hardware would sit on the make-up or recirculation line. Uchida et al., 2018